Dutch (Nederlands)
Dutch is a West Germanic language with about 24 million speakers, mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium. There are about 16 million Dutch speakers in the Netherlands, where it is the official language. There are about 7.6 million Dutch speakers in Belgium, mainly in Antwerp, East Flanders, Flemish Brabant and Limburg provinces, and also in Brussels.
Dutch is spoken in Curaçao, Aruba, Sint Maarten and elsewhere in the Caribbean Netherlands by about 19,760 people. There are about 126,200 Dutch speakers in Suriname, and in Indonesia some lawyers know Dutch as certain legal codes written in Dutch. Other countries with significiant numbers of Dutch speakers include Germany (151,000), the USA (142,000) and Canada (103,000) [source].
Links
Information about the Dutch language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language
http://www.lowlands-l.net/anniversary/nederlands-info.php
http://www.onzetaal.nl
http://taalunieversum.org
https://www.clozemaster.com/blog/topics/language-learning/learn-dutch/
Online Dutch lessons
http://www.learndutch.org/
http://www.speakdutch.nl/
http://www.taalthuis.com
http://www.foreigndocuments.com/learndutch/
http://www.valley-trail.com/Dutch_Courses.htm
http://www.2bdutch.nl
http://www.dutchgrammar.com
http://polymath.org/dutch.php
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Dutch
https://learnanylanguages.com/free-dutch-course-online/
https://wp.me/p9L3un-5v
https://www.heardutchhere.net/sitemap.html
http://www.dutchpod101.com/
Swedish (svenska)
Swedish is a North Germanic language spoken by about 10 million people in Sweden (Sverige). In 2007 there were 290,000 native speakers of Swedish in Finland, and 2.4 million second-language speakers. In 2010 there were an estimated 300,000 Swedish speakers in countries other than Sweden or Finland. Many live in the USA, UK, Spain and Germany, and also in other Scandinavian countries, France, Switerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia.
Swedish is closely related to Norwegian and Danish, and is mutually intelligible with them to a large extent, particularly in its written form.
Finland was ruled by Sweden from the 12th century until 1809. During that period, Swedish was the main language of government and education there. Today Finnish and Swedish have equal status as official languages in Finland.
There used to be Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia (Estland). About a thousand of those Swedes migrated to southern Ukraine after Estonia became part of the Russian Empire in the 18th century. They set up a village there known as Gammölsvänskbi (Old Swedish Village), which is now part of Zmiivka (Зміївка). Only a few elderly residents still speak Swedish there. During World War II other Swedish-speakers fled from Estonia to Sweden. Only a few people in Estonia still speak Swedish today.
Between 800 and 1100 AD, a dialect of Old East Norse known as Runic Swedish was spoken in Sweden. It was written with the Runic alphabet. It differed only slightly from the Old East Norse dialect of Denmark, or Runic Danish. The two languages began to diverge during the 12th century.
Swedish first appeared in the Latin alphabet in 1225 in the Westrogothic law (Äldre Västgötalagen), the code of law used in the province of West Gothland (Västergötland). The language of this text is known as Early Old Swedish klassisk fornsvenska or äldre fornsvenska), which was used until about 1375. It was grammatically much more complex than modern Swedish.
Between 1375 and 1526 the language of Sweden was known as Late Old Swedish (yngre fornsvenska). It had undergone much grammatical simplification and a vowel shift, and by the 16th century it had more in common with modern Swedish. During this time Swedish borrowed many words from Latin, Low German and Dutch.
The translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1526 is seen as marking the beginning of modern Swedish. It helped to establish a consistent orthography for Swedish, although the spelling used in the translation was not completely consistent. For example, the letters ä and ö were used in place of æ and ø, and å replaced o in many words.
Modern Swedish spelling rules were created by the author Carl Gustaf af Leopold, who was commissioned to do so by the Swedish Academy (Svenska Akademien). His proposal was publish in 1801, and finally adopted by the Academy in 1874. The spelling was reformed in 1906, and that reform was only fully supported by the Swedish Academy in 1950.
Links
Information about Swedish language and culture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_alphabet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_phonology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_orthography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_East_Norse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Swedish
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Swedish
Online Swedish lessons
http://www2.hhs.se/isa/swedish/
http://www.onlineswedish.com
http://www.personal.psu.edu/adr10/swedish.html
http://www.ielanguages.com/swedish.html
http://www.sweol.com
http://polymath.org/swedish.php
http://ilovelanguages.org/swedish.php
http://lingohut.com/en/l89/learn-swedish
http://www.swedishpod101.com/
Norwegian (norsk)
Norwegian is a North Germanic language with around 5 million speakers in mainly in Norway. There are also some speakers of Norwegian in Denmark, Sweden, Germany, the UK, Spain, Canada and the USA.
Early Norwegian literature, mainly poetry and historical prose, was written in West Norse and flourished between the 9th and the 14th centuries. After that Norway came under Swedish and then Danish rule. Norwegian continued to be spoken but Danish was used for officials purposes, as a literary language and in higher education.
After Norway separated from Denmark in 1814, Danish continued to be used in schools until the 1830s, when a movement to create a new national language emerged. The reasoning behind the movement was that written Danish differed to such an extent from spoken Norwegian that it was difficult to learn, and because they believed that every country should have its own language.
There was considerable debate about how to go about creating a national language and two languages emerged - Landsmål (national language), based on colloquial Norwegian and regional dialects, particularly the dialects of western Norway, and Riksmål (national language), which was primarily a written language and very similar to Danish.
Landsmål was renamed Nynorsk (New Norwegian) in 1929 and Riksmål is now officially known as Bokmål (book language). A few people over 60 still use Riksmål, which is considered a conservative form of Bokmål and differs only slightly from it.
Today schools in Norway have to teach both variations of the language. Students have to learn both of them, only they can choose which one they would like to learn as a major language. Civil servants are expected to be able to use both forms.
Links
Information about the Norwegian language
http://norwegianlanguage.info
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_language
Online Norwegian lessons
http://www.sofn.com/norwegian_culture/languagelessons_index.jsp
http://www.ntnu.edu/now
http://www.101languages.net/norwegian/
http://norwegianlearning.com/
http://polymath.org/norwegian.php
http://www.norwegianclass101.com/
Danish (dansk)
Danish is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Denmark, where there are 5.46 million speakers, and by 6,200 people in Greenland, and 1,546 people in the Faroe Islands. There are also 39,500 Danish speakers in Sweden, 28,300 in the USA, 24,900 in Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany, 21,000 in Norway, 12,600 in Canada, 10,000 in the UK, and smaller numbers in other countries.
Links
Information about the Danish language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/danish.shtml
Online Danish lessons
http://www.loecsen.com/travel/0-en-14-2-19-free-lessons-danish.html
http://www.learnoasis.com/content/learn-danish-online
https://www.learnwitholiver.com/danish/
http://polymath.org/danish.php
http://www.dicts.info/?learn=Danish
http://www.danishclass101.com/
Finnish (suomi)
Finnish is a Finnic language spoken mainly in Finland and Sweden, and also in Estonia, Norway and Russia. In 2018 there were 5.7 million speakers of Finnish in Finland, 500,000 of whom spoke Finnish as a second language, and the rest were native speakers. In 2009 there were 201,000 Finnish speakers in Sweden, and in 2010 there were 38,900 speakers of Finnish in Russia, mainly in Leningrad Oblast (province).
Status of Finnish
Until 1809 Finland was a part of Sweden, and Swedish was the official language. From 1863, the Finnish language could be used, along with Swedish, when dealing with authorities. From 1883, civil servants were obliged to use the Finnish language, and to issue documents in Finnish. In 1892, Finnish became an official language, and gained a status comparable to that of Swedish.
Finnish is an official language in Finland, along with Swedish, and is one of the official languages of the EU. Finnish is recognised as a minority language in Sweden, Norway and Russia.
Relationship to other languages
Finnish belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family. It is classified as belonging to the Northern Finnic group of languages, along with Karelian, Ingrian, Ludic and Veps. Southern Finnic languages include Estonian, Livonian and Votic [source]. Finnish and Karelian are more or less mutually intelligible [source].
Written Finnish
The earliest known example of written Finnish appeared in a German travel journal dating from about 1450. The first piece of Finnish literature was a translation of the New Testament by Michael Agricola, a Finish bishop, which was published in 1548. He created an orthography for Finnish based on western dialect of Finnish, and Swedish, German and Latin spelling. This orthography has since been revised.
- Learn Finnish with Glossika
- Learn Finnish online with FinnishPod101
- Finnish learning software
Links
Information about Finnish
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language
http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/finnish-intro.html
Finnish as a world language? (Reasons for learning Finnish)
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